| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Sociology | the systematic study of human society |
| Sociological perspective | the special point of view of sociology that sees general patterns of society in the lives of particular people |
| Global perspective | the study of the larger world and our society’s place in it |
| Auguste Comte | named sociology in 1838 to describe a new way of looking at society |
| Theory | a statement of how and why specific facts are related |
| Theoretical approach | a basic image of society that guides thinking and research |
| Structural-functional approach | a framework for building theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability |
| Social structure | any relatively stable pattern of social behavior |
| Manifest functions | the recognized and intended consequences of any social pattern |
| Latent functions | the unrecognized and unintended consequences of any social pattern |
| Social dysfunction | any social pattern that may disrupt the operation of society |
| Social-conflict approach | a framework for building theory that sees society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and change |
| Macro-level orientation | a broad focus on social structures that shape society as a whole |
| Micro-level orientation | a close-up focus on social interaction in specific situations |
| Symbolic-interaction approach | a framework for building theory that sees society as the product of the everyday interactions of individuals |
| Science | a logical system that bases knowledge on direct, systematic observation |
| Empirical evidence | information we can verify with our senses |
| Variable | a concept whose value changes from case to case |
| Measurement | a procedure for determining the value of a variable in a specific case |
| Operationalize a variable | specifying exactly what is to be measured before assigning a value to a variable |
| Reliability | consistency in a measurement |
| Cause and effect | a relationship in which change in one variable causes change in another |
| Independent variable | the variable that causes the change |
| Dependent variable | the variable that changes |
| Correlation | a relationship in which two (or more) variables change together |
| Spurious correlation | an apparent but false relationship between two (or more) variable that is caused by some other variable |
| Objectivity | personal neutrality in conducting research |
| Research method | a systematic plan for doing research |
| Experiment | a research method for investigating cause and effect under highly controlled conditions |
| Hypothesis | a statement of a possible relationship between two (or more) variables |
| Hawthorne effect | a change in a subject’s behavior caused simply by the awareness of being studied |
| Survey | a research method in which subjects respond to a series of statements or questions in a questionnaire or an interview |
| Population | the people who are the focus of the research |
| Sample | a part of a population that represents the whole |
| Participant observation | a research method in which investigators systematically observe people while joining them in their routine activities |
| Culture | the ways of thinking, the ways of acting, and the material objects that together form a people’s way of life |
| Symbol | anything that carries a particular meaning recognized by people who share a culture |
| Language | a system of symbols that allows people to communicate with one another |
| Sapir-Whorf thesis | the idea that people see and understand the world through the cultural lens of language |
| Values | culturally defined standards that people use to decide what is desirable, good, and beautiful and that serve as broad guidelines for social living |
| Beliefs | specific thoughts or ideas that people hold to be true |
| Norms | rules and expectations by which a society guides the behavior of its members |
| Mores | norms that are widely observed and have great moral significance |
| Folkways | norms for routine or casual interactions |
| Subculture | cultural patterns that set apart some segment of a society’s population |
| Multiculturalism | a perspective recognizing the cultural diversity of the United States and promoting equal standing for all cultural traditions |
| Eurocentrism | the dominance of European (especially English) cultural patterns |
| Counterculture | cultural patterns that strongly oppose those widely accepted within a society |
| Ethnocentrism | the practice of judging another culture by the standards of one’s own culture |
| Society | people who interact in a defined territory and share a culture |
| Sociocultural evolution | Lenski’s term for the changes that occur as a society gains new technology |
| Hunting and gathering | making use of simple tools to hunt animals and gather vegetation for food |
| Horticulture | the use of hand tools to raise crops |
| Pastoralism | the domestication of animals |
| Agriculture | large-scale cultivation using plows harnessed to animals or more powerful energy sources |
| Industrialism | the production of goods using advanced sources of energy to drive large machinery |
| Postindustrialism | the production of information using computer technology |
| Social conflict | the struggle between segments of society over valued resources |
| Capitalists | people who own and operate factories and other businesses in pursuit of profits |
| Proletarians | people who sell their labor for wages |
| Social institutions | the major spheres of social life, or societal subsystems, organized to meet human needs |
| Class conflict | conflict between entire classes over the distribution of a society’s wealth and power |
| Alienation | the experience of isolation and misery resulting from powerlessness |
| Tradition | values and beliefs passed from generation to generation |
| Rationality | a way of thinking that emphasizes deliberate, matter-of-fact calculation of the most effient way to accomplish a particular task |
| Anomie | Durkheim’s term for a condition in which society provides little moral guidance to individuals |
| Mechanical solidarity | Durkheim’s term for social bonds, based on common sentiments and shared moral values, that are strong among members of preindustrial societies |
| Organic solidarity | Durkheim’s term for social bonds based on specialization and interdependence, that are strong among members of industrial societies |
| Division of labor | specialized economic activity |
| Materialist Approach | claims that societies are defined by their economic systems: how humans produce material goods shapes their experiences |
| Karl Marx | Materialist Approach/Social Conflict |
| Max Weber | Idealist Approach/Symbolic Interaction |
| Emile Durkhiem | Structural Functionalism |
| Idealist Approach | emphasizes the pwer of ideas to shape society |