Question |
Answer |
Sociology |
the systematic study of human society |
Sociological perspective |
the special point of view of sociology that sees general patterns of society in the lives of particular people |
Global perspective |
the study of the larger world and our society’s place in it |
Auguste Comte |
named sociology in 1838 to describe a new way of looking at society |
Theory |
a statement of how and why specific facts are related |
Theoretical approach |
a basic image of society that guides thinking and research |
Structural-functional approach |
a framework for building theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability |
Social structure |
any relatively stable pattern of social behavior |
Manifest functions |
the recognized and intended consequences of any social pattern |
Latent functions |
the unrecognized and unintended consequences of any social pattern |
Social dysfunction |
any social pattern that may disrupt the operation of society |
Social-conflict approach |
a framework for building theory that sees society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and change |
Macro-level orientation |
a broad focus on social structures that shape society as a whole |
Micro-level orientation |
a close-up focus on social interaction in specific situations |
Symbolic-interaction approach |
a framework for building theory that sees society as the product of the everyday interactions of individuals |
Science |
a logical system that bases knowledge on direct, systematic observation |
Empirical evidence |
information we can verify with our senses |
Variable |
a concept whose value changes from case to case |
Measurement |
a procedure for determining the value of a variable in a specific case |
Operationalize a variable |
specifying exactly what is to be measured before assigning a value to a variable |
Reliability |
consistency in a measurement |
Cause and effect |
a relationship in which change in one variable causes change in another |
Independent variable |
the variable that causes the change |
Dependent variable |
the variable that changes |
Correlation |
a relationship in which two (or more) variables change together |
Spurious correlation |
an apparent but false relationship between two (or more) variable that is caused by some other variable |
Objectivity |
personal neutrality in conducting research |
Research method |
a systematic plan for doing research |
Experiment |
a research method for investigating cause and effect under highly controlled conditions |
Hypothesis |
a statement of a possible relationship between two (or more) variables |
Hawthorne effect |
a change in a subject’s behavior caused simply by the awareness of being studied |
Survey |
a research method in which subjects respond to a series of statements or questions in a questionnaire or an interview |
Population |
the people who are the focus of the research |
Sample |
a part of a population that represents the whole |
Participant observation |
a research method in which investigators systematically observe people while joining them in their routine activities |
Culture |
the ways of thinking, the ways of acting, and the material objects that together form a people’s way of life |
Symbol |
anything that carries a particular meaning recognized by people who share a culture |
Language |
a system of symbols that allows people to communicate with one another |
Sapir-Whorf thesis |
the idea that people see and understand the world through the cultural lens of language |
Values |
culturally defined standards that people use to decide what is desirable, good, and beautiful and that serve as broad guidelines for social living |
Beliefs |
specific thoughts or ideas that people hold to be true |
Norms |
rules and expectations by which a society guides the behavior of its members |
Mores |
norms that are widely observed and have great moral significance |
Folkways |
norms for routine or casual interactions |
Subculture |
cultural patterns that set apart some segment of a society’s population |
Multiculturalism |
a perspective recognizing the cultural diversity of the United States and promoting equal standing for all cultural traditions |
Eurocentrism |
the dominance of European (especially English) cultural patterns |
Counterculture |
cultural patterns that strongly oppose those widely accepted within a society |
Ethnocentrism |
the practice of judging another culture by the standards of one’s own culture |
Society |
people who interact in a defined territory and share a culture |
Sociocultural evolution |
Lenski’s term for the changes that occur as a society gains new technology |
Hunting and gathering |
making use of simple tools to hunt animals and gather vegetation for food |
Horticulture |
the use of hand tools to raise crops |
Pastoralism |
the domestication of animals |
Agriculture |
large-scale cultivation using plows harnessed to animals or more powerful energy sources |
Industrialism |
the production of goods using advanced sources of energy to drive large machinery |
Postindustrialism |
the production of information using computer technology |
Social conflict |
the struggle between segments of society over valued resources |
Capitalists |
people who own and operate factories and other businesses in pursuit of profits |
Proletarians |
people who sell their labor for wages |
Social institutions |
the major spheres of social life, or societal subsystems, organized to meet human needs |
Class conflict |
conflict between entire classes over the distribution of a society’s wealth and power |
Alienation |
the experience of isolation and misery resulting from powerlessness |
Tradition |
values and beliefs passed from generation to generation |
Rationality |
a way of thinking that emphasizes deliberate, matter-of-fact calculation of the most effient way to accomplish a particular task |
Anomie |
Durkheim’s term for a condition in which society provides little moral guidance to individuals |
Mechanical solidarity |
Durkheim’s term for social bonds, based on common sentiments and shared moral values, that are strong among members of preindustrial societies |
Organic solidarity |
Durkheim’s term for social bonds based on specialization and interdependence, that are strong among members of industrial societies |
Division of labor |
specialized economic activity |
Materialist Approach |
claims that societies are defined by their economic systems: how humans produce material goods shapes their experiences |
Karl Marx |
Materialist Approach/Social Conflict |
Max Weber |
Idealist Approach/Symbolic Interaction |
Emile Durkhiem |
Structural Functionalism |
Idealist Approach |
emphasizes the pwer of ideas to shape society |